TEACHER'S MANUAL 

^^ TO ACCOMPANY 

1576 

Jl^ SSONS IN LANGUAGE 

AND GRAMMAR 

H. S.TARBELL 
6* M.TARBELL 



I'iM.'t'iU! 



GINN ^ 6-^ COMPANY 




Class _JLB_L5_TA 



Copiglit'N''. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



MANUAL 



TO ACCOMPANY 



LESSONS IN LANGUAGE 
AND GRAMMAR 



BY 



HORACE S. TARBELL, LL.D. 



AND 



MARTHA TARBELL, Ph.D. 



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O • 1 o ■» ' ' 

3 J 5 > 111) 






BOSTON, U.SA. 
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

d)e 9ltl)enaettm |)re66 
1903 






THt LlLRAl^Y OF 
CONGRESS, 

Tv/o Copies Received 

APR 22 1903 

Copyright btury 

CLASS a> XXc. No. 

COPY B. 



Copyright, 1903 
By GINN & COMPANY 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



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TEACHERS' MANUAL 

TARBELL'S LESSONS IN LANGUAGE 

AND GRAMMAR 

Book I 

Part I — How to Write 

The first fifty-seven sections of Part I should be studied 
thoroughly. The remaining sections may be taken more 
rapidly or omitted altogether. The suggestions in this 
manual supplement, but do not supersede, those in the 
text-book. 

SECTIONS I AND II — THE SENTENCE 

Ask your pupils to bring to class written upon paper five 
or more sentences selected from one of their schoolbooks. 
These may be read to the class by the pupils, and the class 
may decide whether they are sentences and what kind of 
sentences they are. Some of them may be copied upon the 
board. The next day original sentences may be required. 
It will take a long time with some pupils to develop the 
** sentence sense." 

SECTION VI — THE STUDY OF A POEM 

The pupils will, of course, notice the difference between 
the lines in prose and poetry, and that the first word of 
every line of poetry begins with a capital. 



2 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

They have now learned what may be called the funda- 
mental rules of punctuation, — four rules for capitals and 
two rules for the marks at the end of sentences. Test them 
first in their language books and then in their reading books 
upon their recognition of these rules. 

SECTION VII — THE DESCRIPTION OF A PICTURE 

The questions given in this section by no means exhaust 
the appropriate questions. Have the class write from the 
questions here given ; then require the class to make a new 
set of questions and to write answers to those. 

SECTION VIII — THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 

After the pupils have followed the directions in the section 
let them write from dictation all the sentences in the lesson, 
telling them as they write where to insert the commas, but 
letting them be responsible for capitals and periods. Call 
their attention to the use of the period after the number of 
a section, after its title, and after the title of a poem or com- 
position. They ought also to notice the use of the colon 
and dash in these lessons. 

Sf. Marys River is written without the apostrophe because 
it is a geographical name. 

SECTION X — AN EXERCISE IN REPRODUCTION 

Lead the pupils to notice the difference in the use of 
capitals between months and seasons. 

SECTION XI — INITIAL LETTERS; ABBREVIATIONS 

The caution at the bottom of the page not to use too 
many abbreviations, and similar cautions or directions in 
succeeding exercises, should be repeatedly brought to the 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 3 

notice of the pupils. Children tend too strongly to the use 
of abbreviations, and are apt to omit the period which is a 
part of the abbreviation. 

SECTION XIII — THE DESCRIPTION OF A PICTURE 

Have pupils write a composition by answering the ques- 
tions in the section. Then let them make a set of different 
questions and write a second composition from them. Fol- 
low this practice wherever practicable. 

SECTION XXI — THE COMMA IN A SERIES 

In newspapers the comma is often omitted before the ajid 
preceding the last term of a series; but in magazines and 
books it is usually inserted. This should be explained to 
the pupils, and they should be taught to punctuate according 
to the rule given in the book. The comma is usually omitted 
before the a7id in the names of firms. 

SECTION XXIV — REVIEW EXERCISES 

Review exercises like this should be given frequently, 
much more frequently than they are set down in the book. 
Such exercises should not, usually, take the full time of a 
recitation, but rather take a small part of the recitation 
period every two or three days. These may be impromptu or 
prepared. For prepared reviews it is usually better to write 
questions upon the blackboard or dictate them to pupils for 
the coming recitation than to assign sections for review study. 

SECTION XXVII — REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 

When this lesson is assigned, tell the pupils they may 
study it until they can give the rule for every capital and 
mark of punctuation except one comma [the one in " When 



4 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

I was in New York," etc.]. At the recitation period dictate 
the sentences to the pupils. They may exchange papers 
and correct without the book ; then exchange again and cor- 
rect from the book. The exercise will need to be divided 
for this work. 

SECTION XXXI — THE STUDY OF A STANZA 

This is a more serious and difficult exercise in composi- 
tion than the class has yet undertaken. To do it well will 
require three or four days ; but some other work, involving 
oral recitation, not written, may be taken with it. 

The questions are designed to induce thought, and are 
not intended to be used to write from. If your pupils have 
skill enough, let them draw the picture of the scene and 
then describe the picture. Several pupils in every class 
will show talent for such illustrations, and the exercise will 
develop the imagination. 

SECTION XXXVII — QUOTATIONS 

Call the attention of the pupils to the punctuation of as^ 
introducing an example. 

The pupils should be able to explain the use of every 
capital and mark of punctuation in this exercise except the 
semicolon in the last paragraph. Have them do this orally 
before writing from dictation. If they hesitate much in 
doing this, the previous sections should be reviewed until 
the work in this section can be done readily. 

SECTION XLVI — A DIALOGUE 

This exercise may be written first as a story, and then the 
story may be rewritten in dialogue form as a second exercise. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 5 

SECTION XLIX — LETTER WRITING 

If you have already given your pupils lessons in letter 
writing it has not been amiss. 

It will be best to copy upon the board letter forms and 
talk about them with the class before the children learn 
anything about them from the book. Such sections as LI, 
LI I, LIII, LIV, and LV are to be talked about before the 
book is taken, then talked about again with the open book 
in hand, and then questioned upon with books closed. 

The sections from this subject to Part II are similar in 
character to those before given and may be treated in the 
same way. If you have not time for all of them, select such 
as are most interesting to your class. It will be quite as 
profitable to rewrite some of the preceding exercises and 
see how much improvement your class has made since these 
were first written, as it will be to write the exercises which 
follow. Do both if you have time. 

Part II — Elementary Grammar 

SECTION I — THE SENTENCE 

The pupil should be led to notice that in Section I, Part I, 
there is no definition of a sentence, though he has been using 
the word. Now, a definition seems needed. 

SECTION II — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

In lessons in language it is important that the form of 
the teacher's questions should be carefully considered, and 
that the pupils' answers should correspond exactly in form 
with the question asked. 

Turn to Part I for additional material for exercises on 
sentences and parts of sentences. 



6 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

SECTION III — DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, IMPERA- 
TIVE, AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES 

Do not spend much time on exclamatory sentences. 

SECTION V — THE NOUN, COMMON AND PROPER 

There are other kinds of common nouns than class nouns, 
but pupils need not be told about them now. At present 
the statement, "All nouns not proper nouns are common 
nouns," is sufficient. 

SECTION IX — THE ARTICLE 

The rule sought is, a is used before vowel sounds and an 
before consonant sounds. The use of a or an before h is a 
matter on which practice differs. 

SECTION X — THE ADJECTIVE 

Pupils will be helped to good work by making the require- 
ments for study as definite as possible. For example, it 
might be well to tell them to find two adjectives in the first 
numbered sentence, page 105, three in the second, three in 
the third, two in the fourth, two in the fifth, two in the sixth, 
and four in the seventh ; that in the first line of the stanza 
at the bottom of the page there is one adjective, in the second 
two, in the third two, in the fourth two, in the fifth three, in 
the sixth none, in the seventh one, and in the eighth two. 

SECTION XI — THE ADJECTIVE: COMPARISON 

Such a section is not difficult if it be taken in parts and 
learned slowly. 

The teacher should not confuse the class by long lessons, 
nor by going hastily over ground partially understood and 
not well fixed in the mind ; nor, on the other hand, should 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 7 

she waste time by giving short lessons and delaying upon 
that already mastered. The way out of this difficulty is to 
give short lessons, well worked over by questions and drill, 
and, at the same time, make progress by an additional lesson 
or part of a lesson of a different character upon some other 
topic. 

SECTION XIV— SELECTING THE RIGHT PRONOUN 

When this section is completed an additional exercise of 
the same sort may be made of the last paragraph of the 
preceding section, omitting the pronouns after />, are^ was^ 
zvere, and be. 

SECTION XV — THE VERB 

The effort of the pupil should be in finding verbs rather 
than in studying the definitions of the verb. 

In the sentence, " The knife is sharp," the pupil will prob- 
ably think sharp is the telling word, because it tells something 
about the knife. Show that is is the telling word, while sharp 
simply shows what is told, by calling the pupil's attention to 
the fact that if he were to say "The knife is sharp," and 
some one were to deny it, he would repeat his sentence and 
say, "The knife is sharp," showing that is is the word on 
which we depend to make the assertion, or do the telling. 

It would be well to have the pupils learn a short list of 
the verbs in most common use. They are a77t, been, shall, 
will, may, might, and the list on page 39 of words with 
which not may be combined. 

SECTION XVI — THE VERB 

Sections XVI and XVII and Sections XIX-XXV may be 
omitted if the class has not time for them or the teacher 
thinks it better to take up these topics for the first time 
when the class studies Book II. 



8 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

SECTION XVIII — SELECTING THE RIGHT VERB 

The work in this section is very suitable for pupils of the 
fourth reader grade, and should be taken up as directed at 
the head of the section. 

The work should be done orally first. Pupils may correct 
their written work from models placed upon the blackboard. 
One lesson a week will be enough in this section. 

SECTION XX — THE VERB: PRINCIPAL PARTS 

W^hile teaching Sections XX-XXIII the teacher should 
feel that it is not so much grammar that she is teaching as 
it is the correct use in speech of the forms of verbs. Pupils 
who have been accustomed to hearing correct speech will 
virtually know all that is taught in these sections before 
beginning their study, but will by studying them be helped 
to systematize their knowledge. Others ought to be taught 
to use correct forms of verbs before their habits of speech 
become too firmly established. 

SECTION XXIX — THE PREPOSITION 

If Sections XVI and XVII were omitted, then the rule at 
the top of page 142 should be omitted also. The remainder 
of the section can be taken. 



Book II 

A COURSE of study for this book, embracing eight half 
years, is given in the text, page x. One for seven half years 
is given below : 

Course for Seven Half Years 



Chapters 



I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 



Topics 



Introductory . . 
Letters .... 
Description . . . 
Narration . . . 
Reproduction and Essays 
Longfellow, A Study of 

Style 

Secretarial Writings 
Synonyms . . . 
Grammar .... 
Punctuation . . . 



1,2 

I 
1-3 



1-13 
1-6 



2 

4,5 

I 

I 

I 
1-6 



14-17 
7—10 



2 
2 

2,3 

7-10 



ig-26 
II, 12 



4-6 

3 

3 

4,5 
11-15 



27-38 
13-16 



7,8 
6 

4 

4 

6,7 
16-20 

1-3 

39-46 
17-21 



7-9 



8,9 
21-24 

4-7 

47-53 

22-25 



5 

ID, II 

25-28 

8-1 1 

55-62 
Review 



No course is designated for the work in synonyms, as this 
chapter is designed to be studied in connection with other 
work according to the convenience and the judgment of the 
teacher. 

It is advised that if the course be but seven half years, Sec- 
tion XII of Chapter VI and Sections XVIII, XX (part), XXI, 
XXIX, XXX, XXXIV, XXXVI, XLIII, LIV, LXIII of 
Chapter X be omitted. 

In case it is desired to complete the work in six half years, 
then it is advised to omit, besides the above, — in Chap- 
ter V, a part of Section III and all of Sections IV and V ; 

9 



lO TEACHERS' MANUAL 

in Chapter VII, Sections VII-X, XXV-XXIII ; in Chap- 
ter VIII, Sections VIII-XI ; and in Chapter X, Sections 
XLVI, LIII, and LX-LXIII. 

In the courses for seven or eight half years, such of these 
omissions as commend themselves to the judgment of the 
teacher may, of course, be made. 



THE MECHANICAL DIFFICULTIES IN 

WRITING 

There are two classes of difficulties which pupils meet in 
their efforts at composition : those of mechanism and those of 
thought, the latter including matter and expression. These dif- 
ficulties should, so far as practicable, be overcome separately. 

The mechanical difficulties include penmanship, spelling, 
punctuation, arrangement in paragraphs and upon the page. 
When these difficulties no longer trouble one, it is easier to 
write than to talk ; for in writing, more time is given for 
thought than in talking, and the matter already written 
assists the thinking and suggests the form of that which is 
to follow. 

It is not the province of this book to treat of penmanship 
and spelling ; but ample instruction has been given upon 
the other mechanical parts of writing. 

Nearly the whole field of mechanical difficulty has been 
cultivated, and most of the obstructions removed by the 
time the pupil has completed Chapter I and the first three 
sections of Chapter II ; for these sections, with the accompa- 
nying work in dictation and punctuation, cover all difficulties 
of this character except certain work in punctuation and 
certain forms of written documents. 

During the time devoted to these sections, not much 
attention should be given to the thinking of the pupils ; the 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR n 

teacher should not trouble herself so much about what the 
child writes as that he writes something readily and writes 
it in good form. 

During this mechanical period of training, large classes 
are best, and there should be no correcting of papers by 
the teacher. Those who make the most mistakes should 
write their paragraphs upon the board, and the class should 
correct. A few pupils who write very well should write 
model forms upon the board. 

Mistakes in spelling require special, early, and persistent 
treatment. The pupils' written exercises should furnish the 
material for a considerable portion of the spelling lessons of 
the class. 

At the time of writing, young pupils should be encouraged 
to ask the teacher how to spell any word which they wish to 
use and which they do not feel sure they know how to spell. 
Older pupils should look up such words in the dictionary. 

As pupils read their written work they may be asked about 
the spelling of certain words, their use of capitals and marks 
of punctuation. Thus these three elements of error may 
be considerably eliminated from the papers before they are 
handed to the teacher. 

The papers of the class should lie upon the teacher's desk 
from the close of one written exercise to the beginning of 
the next, and during this time the teacher should look them 
over sufficiently to discover how well they are done and what 
the more common errors are. 

At the beginning of the next lesson in language these 
papers may be handed to the class, each pupil receiving the 
paper of some one else, and mistakes may be marked. 

Words misspelled should be underscored. Errors or omis- 
sions in the use of capitals and marks of punctuation may 
be shown by P placed at the beginning of the line in which 
the mistake appears. The sign \j placed at the beginning 



12 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

of a line may signify that in this line there is some mistake 
other than in spelling, capitals, and punctuation. 

Papers may then be returned to the writers, and each 
pupil may write upon a slip of paper the words misspelled 
and make in his copy the other corrections required. 

If a pupil has any doubt about the correction of a marked 
sentence let him show it to the teacher, or copy it upon the 
board for the consideration of the class and the teacher. 

The pupil making most mistakes in spelling should collect 
the slips containing the several misspelled words and copy 
the words upon the blackboard. These words should be 
studied and used later in a spelling or dictation exercise. 
After such an exercise all words that no pupil has misspelled 
may be erased and the rest may remain for further study. 

It will not do, however, to make the search for mistakes 
in spelling, punctuation, and grammar the chief effort of the 
class critics. After these things have been sought out and 
marked, let the critics next look for sentences or construc- 
tions for which they can suggest improvement, and for omis- 
sions which they can supply. Finally, let them seek for 
points of excellence which deserve commendation. Usually, 
two or three of the better exercises should be copied upon 
the blackboard, and the elements that render them praise- 
worthy should be pointed out. 



DICTATION 

Dictation is the teacher's main reliance in her efforts to 
overcome the mechanical difficulties of her pupils. One 
good form of dictation work is as follows : 

The teacher reads from the reading book or other text- 
book a paragraph which the class has studied before, though 
not for a dictation exercise. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 13 

The teacher reads it again, a few words at a time, pausing 
for the pupils to write. When the work is done each pupil 
compares his work with the printed paragraph in the book 
and corrects his mistakes. 



CORRECTION OF ORAL ERRORS 

Training to correct speech has a positive and a negative 
side. 

The books which this manual accompanies set forth the 
positive side, which consists, speaking broadly, of furnishing 
the occasion for the use of correct forms of speech and 
assisting pupils to develop the power of using these forms. 
The negative side demands the exclusion from the language 
of the child of erroneous or inelegant forms, unconsciously 
imitated from the speech of those about him. 

Incorrect language should be corrected whenever heard, 
not perhaps at the moment of utterance, for by so doing the 
child may be embarrassed and his current of thought broken, 
but at the first convenient opportunity. Besides this inci- 
dental correction, a wholesale crusade against bad habits of 
speech must be entered upon. The most common and 
serious fault in the speech of the children should be selected 
for special attack. The better form should be presented in 
contrast and made prominent. The pupils should be warned 
against this error in their own speech and led to criticise it 
in others. 

It is not necessary to explain the grammatical or rhetori- 
cal principles which prove the expression to be a faulty one, 
but the form to be used instead should be carefully explained 
and always insisted upon. 

Professor W. D. Whitney says, "If a child comes to 
school in such a state of training that he says come for 



14 TEACHERS' MANUAL - 

came, done for did, or the77i for they, and the like, he needs 
to be corrected outright, and the more authority and the less 
grammar about it the better." 



CORRECTING PAPERS 

The careful correction of the papers of individual pupils 
will not be profitable until Chapter V is studied. 

Before this time, general instruction and blackboard illus- 
trations are the means most useful to secure the mechanical 
perfection aimed at. During the work on reproduction the 
final treatment of the more common errors in punctuation 
and grammar should be disposed of, so that from this time 
on there may be greater. consideration of the thought. 

As to the rewriting of exercises by pupils, — if an exercise 
has been carelessly done, it should be rewritten. 

For mistakes in spelling, give spelling drills rather than 
require the rewriting of a paper. Errors in punctuation are 
to be cured by careful discussion and explanation, followed 
by dictation exercises involving the point misunderstood. 
The common errors of grammar yield to a similar treatment. 
If the vocabulary is meager, write on the board words and 
phrases nearly equivalent and usable in the paragraph to be 
written ; discuss them, arid suggest that pupils select from 
this list or make an original selection, giving reasons for the 
choice. 

Whenever you mark an error, try by a class drill or by 
conference with the pupil, to prevent its recurrence. Each 
pupil should have a language notebook, in which he writes 
matters to which he is to give attention ; e.g., the words he 
misspells, the rules for capitals or commas he neglects to apply, 
the words he confuses in use, as shall diud will, the past tense 
and the past participle, the ambiguous use of the pronoun. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 15 

The teacher should have private conferences with pupils 
concerning the mechanism and the thought of their writing, 
particularly and in increasing degree, the thought. 

Corrections are most profitable when they come from a 
growing standard within the child and a desire on his part to 
make his ideals real. Too much correcting by the teacher 
or fellow-pupils does harm. 

It is better to write anew, not rewrite, after a month or so, 
than to rewrite anything which the pupil has tried to do well. 
If due pains has been taken, rewriting is a tiresome and 
comparatively valueless effort. 

Many teachers fear to have pupils do written work which 
is not to be corrected by the teacher, lest the pupils fall into 
careless habits. 

It is a great mistake to think that all work done by pupils 
must be criticised by the teacher. Where is the pupil's 
, ideal of excellence.'' What personal interest has he to 
improve ? What inspiration has the teacher given that 
exists independent of the teacher's pencil markings and 
lasts beyond them ? 

The only large incentives are (a) the interest of the pupils 
in their own work, (b) the fact that their classmates appreci- 
ate the degree of their success, (c) the steady interest of the 
teacher shown by help to do rather than by finding fault with 
things done. 

CHAPTER I — INTRODUCTORY 

SECTION I — THE SENTENCE 

" A sentence is a group of words making a statement, 
a question, or a command," is a better working definition 
than the one which follows it. This definition includes the 
exclamatory sentence, for all exclamatory sentences will be 
found to be statements, questions, or commands so put as 



l6 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

to indicate emotion. Deal only with the simple sentence of 
the three fundamental kinds. 

After the exercise on page 3 has been studied, have the 
pupils give orally a great number of declarative, interroga- 
tive, and imperative sentences. 

When Exercise II, page 5, has been well done, extend the 
work in accordance with the suggestions at the beginning of 
the chapter. Insist on having all that has been learned 
exemplified in all the writing of the pupils, and teach nothing 
else until this is done. 

CHAPTER II — LETTER WRITING 

Go through the first section of this chapter and then go 
on to Chapter HI. 

Hereafter, for course of study, see Course of Study, page x 
of the text-book or page 9 of this manual. 

Before your pupils attempt to study or do anything with 
this chapter, give them blackboard instructions upon a letter 
heading, showing just how it is written. Call attention to 
the spacing, the arrangement, the capitals, the commas, and 
the periods. Give no explanations why things are so, but 
simply say, " It is the custom of good writers to do so." 
Many writers prefer to write the date at the close of the 
letter instead of at the beginning, placing it at the left-hand 
side and lower than the signature, and writing out in full 
the day of the month. This form may also be taught. 

After the pupils copy your blackboard letter heading 
accurately and in good form, let them write it from memory. 
Then let them make original headings — original as to items, 
not as to form or arrangement. Go slowly and thoroughly, 
so that no part of this work will need to be done again. 

Teach in the same way the salutation and the conclusion. 
Then the letter in the book may be copied. Call attention 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 17 

to the paragraphing. Require the punctuation to be copied, 
but give no rules for it. 

Teach the superscription of a letter as the heading was 
taught. With the model letter on page 9 before the pupils, 
question them as to all the capitals and punctuation in the 
several parts of the letter, except the body (see page 8). 

When the pupils have written the exercise on pages 9 and 
lo, let each pupil write a statement for the parts of a letter, 
as shown in this exercise. The papers may be exchanged 
and the proper forms written. The forms may be criticised 
by the pupils by whom the statements were prepared. 

SECTION II — LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 

These are taken to include all except business and social 
letters. There is nothing new to be taught about the form 
of these letters. The necessity of good penmanship and of 
a natural, easy style should be explained. 

A letter of friendship is written for the pleasure of the 
person to whom it is addressed. Before it is written the 
writer should stop to think what the recipient will wish to 
know, and make a memorandum of the points to be spoken 
of. These points should be arranged in the right order 
and, if numerous, should be written down and kept in sight 
while the letter is being written. 

All letters of friendship should be kind in spirit and 
complimentary in tone. 

The visits, the parties, the excursions of the pupils will 
form excellent themes for such letters. 

SECTION III — BUSINESS LETTERS 

Explain to your pupils that every heading of a business 
letter should contain the particulars as to place that the 
receiver will need to know in addressing his reply. 



l8 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

The address should contain the items of the superscription, 
so that in case the letter is separated from the envelope it 
may furnish the data for the proper address. In business 
houses the superscription is usually written some time after 
the letter, and often by another person. 

After the class is thoroughly familiar with the forms in 
the book and has written the exercises in part, other forms 
may be shown and the pupil may exercise his taste in his 
letters, or imitate that which he finds practiced by those 
whose letters he sees, if these are found to be a safe guide. 
The girls in the class need special instruction as to their 
signatures. The most satisfactory form by which a lady 
can indicate her address to the person from whom she seeks 
a reply, is to write in the lower left-hand corner of her letter : 
Please address 

Miss Mary Smith 

359 Prospect St. 

Providence, R.I. 

Some information as to the dead-letter office and the use- 
fulness of a Return in the upper left-hand corner of the 
envelope may be given. 

SECTIONS IV AND V — LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION AND 

RECOMMENDATION 

Letters of introduction and of recommendation may prop- 
erly furnish the occasion for advice to your pupils respecting 
these important missives. The giver of a letter of introduc- 
tion should regard considerately the interests and the feelings 
of both the one for whom the letter is given and the one to 
whom it is addressed. 

The necessity of carefulness and discrimination in letters 
of recommendation should be shown, and their after effects 
upon the writer should be pointed out. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 19 

SECTION VI — ADVERTISEMENTS AND LETTERS OF 

APPLICATION 

Drill your pupils on these until you will not fear to have 
their letters seen by any one ; not merely the letters written 
in class, but those that they may write in actual correspond- 
ence. Have poorly written letters read, corrected, and 
copied. Have the best letter each day put upon the black- 
board for imitation. Advice as to paper and paper folding 
is always needed by beginners. 

Get a newspaper containing a large list of wants and simi- 
lar advertisements, cut these out and give one to each pupil 
to paste at the head of his letter sheet, and tell him to write 
a reply. Not merely a correct form of letter, but propriety 
of language should be sought. Talk with your pupils as 
to what is appropriate and inappropriate in such letters. 
Continue this work until you are proud of the letters your 
pupils write. 

Additional Exercises in Letter Writing 

Copy the following forms of address : 

Watertown, S.D., Aug. 5, 1902. 

Honorable William P. Smith, 

House of Representatives, 
Washington, D.C. 
Dear Sir : — 

Oakland, Cal., Nov. 6, 1902. 

To His Excellency James H. Smith, 

Governor of the State of South Carolina. 
Sir : — 

Bangor, Me., Jan. 4, 1902. 

To His Honor, the Mayor of the City of Boston. 
Sir : — 



20 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 9, 1902. 
To the Honorable, the President of the Board of 
Education of the City of Nashville. 
Sir : — 

Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of excuse • 

180 Moore St Oct 9 1902 

Dear Miss earle will you kindly excuse my absence from 
school on monday and tuesday it was due to my illness 
respectfully yours mary Brown approved Mrs John Brown. 

Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of acknowl- 
edgment : 

315 Wabash Ave Chicago ill Dec 28, 1902 My dear aunt 
I wish to thank you for the beautiful calendar you so kindly 
sent me. it will be a daily reminder of one whose esteem is 
highly prized by your nephew John Brown. 

Arrange and copy the following notes : 

Dear Julia will you dine with me to-morrow at six o'clock 
in company with a few friends of ours cousin may 259 state 
St. June 3. 

My dear May. it gives me pleasure to accept your kind 
invitation to dine with you and your friends to-morrow 
Sincerely yours Julia 39 Adjutant ave June 3, 1902. 

Arrange and copy the following letter of regret : 
Dear Henry I regret that a previous engagement will 
prevent my joining you this evening. I trust you will have 
an enjoyable time ever yours George 257 Avon St. Sept. 18, 
1902. 

Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of applica- 

Boston Mass June 17 1902 
Messrs Farwell and Newton 364 Pine st city gentlemen in 
answer to your advertisement in todays Herald I respectfully 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 21 

apply for the position you have named and enclose testi- 
monials and references as required trusting these may be 
satisfactory I am yours truly David Jones Latham 

Correct, arrange, and copy the following : 

Chicago 111 Feb 5 1902 my dear mr smith I cheerfully 
recommend Vernon G. Wilson the bearer as a young man of 
ability and good character he has served me faithfully for 
two years and now seeks more remunerative employment 
he is ambitious but not more so than his abilities and 
training will warrant very truly yours Harvey G. Lane. 

Correct, arrange, and copy the following letters : 

Kansas City, Mo., June 25 1902 

Dear Alice please accept my cordial congratulations upon 
your success in your recent examinations and your approach- 
ing graduation I will endeavor to be present at your graduat- 
ing exercises on Thursday your sincere friend 
Mary E. Nolan. 

Muskegon Michigan June i, 1902 
My dear Ralph you have my full sympathy in your failure 
to be graduated with your class, your ill health and frequent 
absences are the occasion of your failure and not any 
negligence nor inability on your part wishing you success 
in all your future efforts I remain your true friend Stephen 
S. Ferine 

jan 5 1902 boston mass dear sirs when the goods ordered 
of you arrived here yesterday several breakages had occurred 
showing them to have been carelessly packed we return 
invoice with list of damaged articles and will remit amount 
due you when the corrected invoice is returned to us S. R. 
White & Co per j 1 hall tiffany & Co broadway new york. 



22 TEACHERS' MANUAL 



CHAPTER III — DESCRIPTION 

For the place of this chapter in the course of study for this 
book, see page x of the text-book or page 9 of this manual. 

This chapter, like others in this book, begins with work 
that is easy, but it increases rapidly in difficulty. On this 
account it must be taken in order, and considerable intervals 
of time must elapse between the study of some of the sec- 
tions. Sections I, II, and III are easy ; Sections IV and V 
are more difficult ; while Sections VI, VII, VIII, and IX are 
more difficult still, and can be taken only after the pupil has 
had some training. 

Well-trained pupils can do Sections VI, VII, VIII, and IX 
in the middle of their grammar-grade course, while the same 
work is advanced enough for high-school pupils that have 
had no special training in composition. 

SECTION I — DESCRIPTION OF OBJECTS: SECTION II — 
BIOGRAPHY: SECTION III — PARAGRAPHS 

These sections are intended to teach the distinction 
between a paragraph which is a unit and a series of 
sentences in the form of a paragraph. 

The indentation and arrangement of the paragraph, or 
the putting it upon paper, is to be taught. An admirable 
exercise for training in paragraph writing is to ask every 
pupil to write as the first exercise of the morning, or 
immediately after recess, a paragraph giving an account 
of something observed, heard, read, or thought during the 
last twenty-four hours. As many of the pupils as practi- 
cable should write upon the blackboard, the others upon 
paper. These paragraphs should be read to the class by 
the writers, and credit should be given for interesting matter 
and good form. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 23 

SECTION IV — DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS 

The making and using of an outline is here taught. 

Pupils should now be trained to be unwilling to write at all 
until they have thought about their theme and formed a plan 
for their writing. When they write they should have two 
papers by them, — one on which the writing is to be done, and 
one containing the outline with notes of what is to be writ- 
ten. The pupil's time for thinking is when he is gathering 
and arranging his topics and noting his facts or thoughts. 
When the actual writing is done he should write rapidly, 
finishing in a few minutes. 

Let several pupils, some of the best and some of the poor- 
est, copy their descriptions upon the blackboard. Let the 
class criticise and the teacher suggest improvements in 
arrangement and in form of sentences. 

The class may now rewrite their descriptions. While they 
are doing this the teacher may render individual assistance 
as she passes from pupil to pupil. 

Further exercises in oral description : 

(a) A pupil may describe an animal without naming 
it. When a member of the class guesses rightly the name 
he may continue the description with additional state- 
ments. 

(b) A picture may be passed around the class, each pupil 
having a few seconds in which to observe it. Then at the 
call of the teacher, pupils may rise and describe the picture 
they saw. 

(c) Several pupils may be given pictures to study and 
describe. When the pupil has described his picture to the 
class, let the class see the picture and judge the quality of 
the description. 

(d) A picture in a geography, reader, or history may be 
selected for study ; then while the other members of the class 



24 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

have the picture before them, several members of the class 
may describe the picture from memory. 

When a class has gained sufficient skill in the work, the 
following general form for the description of pictures may be 
suggested : (a) What is in the foreground ; the background ; 
at the right ; at the left ? (d) Of the persons or things to 
be seen, describe position, action, appearance, character. 
(c) What is the general purpose of the picture ? What does 
it illustrate ? 



SECTION V— DESCRIPTION OF THINGS 

The description of things may, if the teacher desires, 
be carried on in the minute, detailed way that has been 
followed with the description of animals. 

Good subjects for such work are : a candle, a pencil, a 
pen, a knife, a box, a kite, a wheelbarrow, a sled, a trunk, 
a bicycle, a carriage, an automobile. 

But the purpose of this section is to attempt a higher kind 
of work, to show the value of apt selection rather than full 
detail, of suggestion rather than plain statement. 

SECTION VI — DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS 

Section VI is harmonious in style and purpose with 
Section V. 

Exercise IV Whether your class will enjoy this work 

or not will depend largely on how much they have been 
trained to appreciate the literature they have read and 
especially the choice bits of description they have found. 

If any of the class, after due assistance, appear unable to 
do the work in these exercises, let them have something 
easier to do while the more capable ones show their power 
to enjoy and to imitate the beautiful descriptions selected. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 25 

While your pupils are studying this chapter, correct the 
errors they make more by advice how to do and by the 
suggestion of right ways of doing than by the marking of 
the papers of individuals. 

The time for such work has not yet come. 

SECTION VIII — CONTRASTED DESCRIPTIONS 

This work should not be undertaken until some months 
have elapsed since the first study of the preceding sections 
of the chapter. When your class is about to undertake this 
work review Section IV and then take Section VIII. 



CHAPTER IV — NARRATION 

Section XI of the chapter on punctuation should now be 
studied if it has not already been mastered. 

Narration concerns itself with events ; description, with 
things. Narration uses verbs and adverbs as description 
uses nouns and adjectives. The study of narration begins 
with personal experiences, continues through stories, heard 
or read, fables, and biographies, to history, which is the 
highest form of narration. Oral narration is more natural 
and more easily given than description. It is placed later 
in the course than description because of the difficulties in 
its written forms. 

As an early training in narration the exercise described in 
the notes on Chapter III, page 22, in this manual may be com- 
mended. Encourage the children to tell what they did or saw 
last evening after school, this morning before coming to school, 
on Saturday last, their last vacation, their last excursion. 

The desire to tell should give zest to narration. In the 
effort to interest others in their discoveries, real composition 
can be secured without drudgery. 



26 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

SECTION I — STORIES TO BE IMITATED 

Your pupils should be led to see the outline of events in 
the stories to be imitated, and to use these outlines in their 
own work. 

For example, in the story of " The Two Goats " the outline 
evidently is : 

1. The situation at first. 

2 . The action of the goats. 

3. The result. 

From this outline let the story be reproduced. 

The same outline may be applied to the story of " The 
Two Farmers." 

In the application of the outline to " The Two Farm- 
ers," the pupil will notice that the result has an explanatory 
statement added. 

In writing an imitation of the story of "The Two Goats," 
the pupil should use the same outline. This outline also 
applies to Exercise II. 

Let the pupils present satisfactory outlines for each exer- 
cise before attempting to write it. 

Explain to pupils the difference between direct and indi- 
rect narration, and give them some practice in changing from 
one to the other. For instance, in Exercise III, the direct 
form is used. Let the pupil reproduce this narration from 
his outline in both the direct and the indirect form. Do the 
same with Exercise V and Exercise VIII. 

Before doing Exercise IV, have the pupils write a repro- 
duction of the fables to be imitated, and prepare an outline 
of each of them. 

The pupils will notice that the direct form is the more 
vivid ; the indirect, the more brief and convenient ; that a 
combination of the two is usually the most effective. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 2/ 

SECTION II — STORIES TO BE WRITTEN 

Write always from outlines. These should be arranged 
in the order of time as nearly as may be. An effort should 
be made by the pupil to reach in each story one interest- 
ing statement for which the preceding portion of the story 
prepares the way. 

Of the eighteen topics select the half dozen or so that can 
be most readily written upon with some interesting result. 

The following may be the outline for the illustration of 
the first proverb: 

1. Shoemaker, busy, successful. 

2. Led to change his business. 

3. Poor success. 

4. Returned again to his shoemaking. 

5. Successful, 

6. Moral. 



CHAPTER V — REPRODUCTIONS AND ESSAYS 

The note to the teacher, page 53, should be thoughtfully 
read, and then the notes in this manual. 

Oral Reproduction 

One of the best tests of a trained mind is the ability to 
reproduce a story accurately and fully. . One of the best 
exercises in language training is reproduction. Reproduc- 
tion is of thoughts, not of words nor of sentences. 

For a child to be able to give readily and in good language 
the substance of what is told to him or of what he reads is 
an attainment of great value. His career as a pupil depends 
very largely upon the possession of this power. 



28 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

Teachers usually try to train their pupils in this direction, 
but many fail because they do not attempt it wisely or with 
sufficient preparation. The pupil will reproduce better what 
he hears than what he sees. Narration is more readily repro- 
duced than description. Hence stories told to the pupils 
should be selected for the first reproductions. 

1. The work may be commenced by asking each pupil to 
tell a short story to the class, beginning with the pupils most 
forward and apt in this work, and continuing until all or 
nearly all have told two or more stories. 

2. The teacher may tell short and interesting stories to 
the class, and have them repeated on the following day by 
several of the pupils. Fables, anecdotes, biblical and classi- 
cal stories are suitable for this purpose. The story should be 
very interesting and long enough to prevent the pupils from 
remembering the exact words of the teacher, but not too 
long to have the incidents all recalled by the greater part of 
the pupils. It will do no harm to repeat the same stories 
over again after a few weeks. 

3. The teacher may read a little story, stopping at the 
end of each phrase and sentence to give the explanations 
which seem necessary. There should be an animated and 
interesting conversation in which the pupils should take 
the larger part. " Do not talk to the children, but with 
them. The child is, above all things, active, and this activity 
should be afforded full opportunity to display itself. . . . 
It is not so much you who are to talk with the pupils as the 
pupils who are to talk with you." [Richter.] The explana- 
tions finished, the teacher will read the story a second time 
from beginning to end without interruption, and will then 
have it repeated from memory by several of the pupils, 
letting the other pupils supply any omissions or correct any 
misstatements. The story may be repeated on other days by 
other pupils until it can be told readily by any of the class. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 29 

Written Reproductions 

Written reproductions should not be attempted until the 
class has reached a fair degree of facility and of correctness 
of expression in oral reproductions. 

Oral expressions can readily be put into better form, if 
need be, through the suggestions of the teacher before 
crudities of expression have become fixed, as they would be 
by the use of the pencil. 

It is fortunate that when we express ourselves in oral 
language, intent chiefly upon the thought, as we always 
ought to be in a first expression, the language that we use 
makes very little impression upon us, and we are not very 
likely to recall it. But if we write, the slowness and formality 
of the writing, and the sight of the words in their order in 
the sentences, tend to fix the words and their arrangement 
in the mind. Hence expressions should be put into the 
best form readily obtainable by the pupil, before they are 
committed to writing. 

Method. After a story has been reproduced orally, and 
before it has become familiar by repetition, the teacher may 
write upon the board a little summary of the story or a 
column of catch words that will help the pupils to reproduce 
the story. The pupils may then be set to writing it, each 
in his own style, but fully and interestingly. During this 
writing the teacher may pass among her pupils to notice 
their work, giving an occasional suggestion or criticism, or 
she may stand by her desk ready" to answer questions as to 
the spelling of words, the punctuation of sentences, or the 
best forms of expression. 

When the time for writing has expired, all should be 
required to cease writing and to attend to the reading and 
criticism of what they have written. As they read their 
reproductions, one after another, these may be criticised 



30 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

by the teacher or by the pupils as to (i) omissions, (2) 
incorrect statements, (3) faulty constructions. 

Omissions should be supplied by other members of the 
class. Incorrect statements should be rectified and faulty 
constructions amended during a free and kind conversation 
between teacher and pupils. 

It is not necessary that the teacher should look over the 
slates or papers for minute criticisms. The reading will 
suggest the main points. 

The teacher of younger pupils may ask. What is your first 
sentence .'* How does it begin ? How is it punctuated ? 
How are the words spelled ? Can it be improved ? Appeal 
to the class to know if the answers are correct. 

Exercises not well done should be rewritten. Young 
children are much more patient of these rewritings than 
older ones are, and all of the simpler and more common 
faults of writing ought to be extirpated at an early period. 

Gems 

Pupils from their first attendance at school to their entrance 
to the high school should learn every week some line, stanza, 
or paragraph, beautiful in thought and in language. 

At first the sentiment, the moral influence of the passage, 
should be chiefly considered ; but later the beauty and the 
force of the language and the breadth and the truthfulness 
of the thought must be regarded. For the first half dozen 
years of school life, all in a class should learn the same 
passages and recite them individually and in concert, receiv- 
ing such paraphrase and explanation as may lead the pupils 
to get the thought and appreciate its dress. 

Selections to be memorized are not included in this book, 
for much will depend upon the taste and must be left to the 
choice of the individual teacher. The sources of such gems 
as may suit the taste of all are not far for any one to seek. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 3 1 

SECTION I — REPRODUCTION WITH OUTLINE AND 

ABSTRACT 

Pupils may have difficulty in writing any other abstract of 
the first exercise than that given in the book. 

The following is another abstract. It will benefit the 
pupils to compare this abstract with that on page 55. 
Which is the better abstract ? 

The habit of keeping a diary is of great value to a boy. In it 
should be written down every evening the events of the day, even 
though not more than two lines are written. 

Such a book should contain everything which interested the 
boy, his observations on the habits of birds and animals, what 
happened to them, and what was done for them. 

The order of work should be : 

(1) Study the selection to be reproduced. 

(2) Make an outline of it. 

(3) From the outline write an abstract. 

(4) From the outline write a reproduction. 

It is best to allow a day or several days to elapse between 
making the outline and making the abstract, so that the 
phraseology of the book may be somewhat forgotten and 
the pupil may rely upon his outline rather than upon his 
memory of the paragraph to be reproduced. On the other 
hand, it is best to write the abstract and the reproduction in 
immediate succession and to compare them closely. 

Some pupils will write only abstracts when they attempt 
reproductions. For such pupils bring the four parts of the 
exercise more closely together, and let them compare their 
meager reproductions with the fuller ones of their classmates. 

It is usually easier for pupils to reproduce what they hear 
than what they read. It is often well to have the outline 
and abstract prepared from hearing the paragraph, then the 
reproduction may be made after reading it. 



32 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

At first this work should be done orally. After a pupil 
has read the paragraph to the class, the outline may be 
called for and, after discussion, agreed upon and placed 
upon the blackboard for later use. 

When an abstract or a reproduction is orally given, dif- 
ferent pupils may be called upon to supply any missing 
items. In so doing, not merely the item, but its position in 
the paragraph should be given. If an abstract only is being 
given, the question of the importance of the item supplied 
will be worthy of some debate. 

While the selection to be reproduced is being studied for its 
outline, the teacher should question the pupils to lead them to 
reason about the situation and to appreciate the beauties, and, 
if the class be capable of it, to see the art of the author. 

Exercise VI. — The thought to be expressed and the order 
of its presentation should be fully considered before any 
writing is attempted. Attend to the thinking before you 
write, and the style after you write. While writing express 
your thoughts as best you can. 

The question of sentence structure and improvement of 
style comes mainly after the first draft of the composition. 
Sentences are to be improved after they are on paper rather 
than by much revolving them in mind before writing them. 

SECTION II — ESSAYS ON MANNERS 

Exercise I. — Spend a week, or two weeks, on this exercise, 
discussing the thoughts and their application. Show that 
several of the quotations mean very nearly the same thing ; 
group them together ; arrange the groups in good order for 
treatment ; find the main thought in each group ; state this 
thought in a short sentence ; have every pupil copy these 
sentences upon paper, and with them at his hand, and the 
book laid aside, let him write as fully as he can upon True 
Politeness, making no quotations. While this is being done, 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 33 

other work in language, advance or review, should, of course, 
be in progress, and form a portion, greater or less, of every 
recitation. 

The method of writing a composition outlined above is the 
method to which the pupil should become accustomed in his 
treatment of all abstract subjects ; except that, of course, he 
usually deals with his own thoughts rather than with those 
furnished to his hand, as here. 

His method, then, will be : first, to write down all the 
thoughts that occur to him upon the topic ; second, to inves- 
tigate, read, converse, reflect, upon the points on which he 
wishes further light. At length he will begin the process 
which has been described in the directions for the treatment 
of this lesson. 

The pupil should review this lesson every few months, 
treating it as freshly and fully as he is able, and comparing 
the result of his effort with what he has previously done. 

SECTION V — VARIETY OF EXERCISES WITH A STORY 

AS THE BASIS 

This section shows various exercises that may be founded 
upon one literary selection. Some are easy and some are 
difficult. If any are too difficult, or the thought at the basis 
of them is unappreciated, they should be omitted. 

CHAPTER VI — A STUDY OF LONGFELLOW 

If the class does no other formal language work in connec- 
tion with the study of literature, then the work of this chap- 
ter may be extended over a considerable period of time. If 
other similar work is done by the class, this work may be 
taken as a model and less time may be spent upon it. 

It is thought that the directions in the chapter are so 
complete that nothing further is needed. 



34 TEACHERS' MANUAL • 

CHAPTER VII — STYLE 

Literary study and composition should go hand in hand. 
The literature furnishes both model and material, and thus 
becomes of great aid to the composition work. 

On the other hand, after a thorough study of a literary 
selection there is lodged in the mind a great number of inter- 
esting facts and thoughts, which the effort at composition 
puts into a connected and unified form, and so brings order 
out of what might otherwise be confusion. 

The teacher should keep a blank book into which she 
places, as she finds them, illustrations suitable for the 
several sections of this chapter. 

A gradual accumulation of illustrations gathered from read- 
ing and from the pupils' own exercises will be of very great 
value. Teachers should exchange such illustrations with 
each other. By this means large lists, graded under the 
section numbers of this chapter, may be obtained with 
comparatively small effort. 

SECTION IV— NATURAL POSITION OF MODIFIERS 

The rule, " A modifier should not be placed between two 
words, phrases, or clauses in such a way as to make it doubt- 
ful which of them it modifies," is a very important one. The 
mistake condemned is often called the squmtmg construction, 
because it is difficult to tell which way the modifier looks. 

SECTIONS V AND VI — NATURAL POSITION OF ADJECTIVE 
AND ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS 

Take abundant time for these sections. Discuss fully 
with the pupils the effect on the meaning of the sentence 
of placing modifiers in different positions. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 35 

Collect from the compositions of the pupils and from the 
newspapers, examples of faulty construction of this char- 
acter, and have them written upon the board for discussion 
and improvement. 

SECTIONS VII, VIII, IX, AND X — ORDER OF EMPHASIS 

The aim in the study of these sections is to secure an 
appreciation of the effect of position on emphasis. They 
contain, in the main, something to be talked about rather 
than something to be done. They are for the recitation 
period rather than the study period, and should be occa- 
sionally reviewed to renew and deepen the impression they 
ought to make. 

SECTION XV — BREVITY 

The pupil will probably be able to make all these sentences 
briefer, but he will not consider that in every case he has 
improved them. This fact will bring him very naturally to 
the consideration of the next section. 

SECTION XVI — CLEARNESS 

This section will require thought. The point of the 
exercise Ues in the explanation. 

The second part of the exercise affords an opportunity for 
discussion over the question. How far must we in common 
speech seek absolute accuracy when we are rightly under- 
stood without it ? 

SECTIONS XVII, XVIII, XIX, AND XX — AMBIGUITY 

Direct pupils to ask themselves the questions : W^hat did 
the one who wrote or spoke this sentence mean ? What also 
may the sentence be taken to mean? How should it be 



^6 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

changed so that it will mean precisely what was intended 
and nothing else ? 

To answer these questions will often require much study, 
but it will be study of a very profitable character. 

SECTION XXVI — METAPHORS 

The teacher's aim should be to lead the pupil to appre- 
ciate the beauty of appropriate metaphors rather than to 
feel that a perplexing task is given him in endeavoring to 
comprehend and explain them. It is easier to recognize a 
metaphor than to explain it. This is an instance in which 
a pupil may " know how it is but cannot explain it." 

The following hints are given to aid in explaining the 
metaphors in the exercise. If the teacher judges it advis- 
able, these hints may be given to the pupils, some of whom 
will still find task enough in putting these explanations into 
good sentences. 

1. See explanation above. 

2. Root — that from which the trouble grows. 

3. Ground — that on which my complaint rests. 

4. Jewel — something beautiful and precious. 

5. Gem — of small size and great value. 

6. Fruit — product. 

Perhaps this may be called a faded metaphor. 

7. Cloak — that which covers or hides. 

8. Spring — source from which water flows. 

9. Chain — that which binds together. 

10. Music — that which attracts and pleases. 
Harp — source of music — pleasure. 

Let the teacher hunt for metaphors in the reading exer- 
cises of her class, and keep the pupils on the alert to dis- 
cover them. This is a task for months, not days. Allow 
much discussion, and let pupils have the joy of discovery. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 37 

SECTION XXVIII — CONTRAST 

Ask your pupils to copy for you as many good, brief 
examples of contrast as they discover. Rearrange these 
in such English as your pupils would naturally write, and 
then hand them to pupils to be put into more complete 
contrasted form. 

CHAPTER VIII — SECRETARIAL WRITINGS 

The note to the teacher at the head of this chapter should 
be carefully considered. 

To go through this chapter in successive lessons until 
finished would be a mistake. 

If a Daily Doings Club, an Anti-Cigarette League, a Par- 
liamentary Law Club, or some other society is established 
in the school, it will furnish a suitable opportunity for train- 
ing secretaries to their duties, and the practical require- 
ments of the business that may be devised will furnish the 
best possible exercises. A large part of the class, perhaps 
a third of their number, may serve at the same time as sec- 
retaries for short periods. Their records, notices, reports, 
etc., should be handed to the teacher. Some of these, the 
best, should be copied upon the blackboard and approved. 
A dozen or fifteen weekly or fortnightly meetings will afford 
opportunity to cover the entire work of the chapter. 

CHAPTER IX — SYNONYMS 

No better exercises can be found to render pupils accu- 
rate in thinking and in expression than the study of syno- 
nyms. To get the benefit of this work, however, the study 
must be careful and deliberate. The pupil must have time 
to do a large part of the work himself, and must not memo- 
rize the statements of distinctions that he does not see. 



38 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

The best study of synonyms is incidental to the improve- 
ment of one's own writing in precision and variety. 

When the pupil begins the study of a set of synonyms he 
should look up in the dictionary the meaning and use of 
each word, writing down the definition which seems most 
characteristic of the word, with a sentence showing its use. 
When he has so studied each word let him state what com- 
mon element of meaning the words have, and then examine 
each word to see what additional element of meaning it 
has. In these additional meanings lie the distinctions in 
the words. Then let the pupil state the contrast of mean- 
ing or use of the words, as has been done in the illustrative 
examples in the chapter. 

Not more than one set of synonyms should be discussed 
in one lesson, and several days may sometimes be required 
before the pupil will be ready to treat fully and clearly one 
set of synonyms. 

There is a great difference in pupils in their ability to 
comprehend the distinctions in the meaning and use of 
words. To make this work difficult or puzzling is not 
profitable. Omit the study of all words with which your 
class will have much trouble or which they will not readily 
understand from your explanations. 



CHAPTER X— GRAMMAR 

It is believed that this chapter contains as much gram- 
mar as can profitably be studied in grammar schools. There 
has been an attempt to arrange the matter in an order con- 
venient for study, the easier portions coming early, and at 
the same time to preserve the logical order of the parts. 

Omissions that may be made are noted in the several 
sections. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 39 

SECTION I — THE SENTENCE 

A declarative sentence which is exclamatory may be called 
an exclamatory dedaratwe sentence. So we may name sen- 
tences exclamatory interrogative and exclamatory imperative. 

In the exercise, the first sentence is interrogative; the 
second, declarative ; the third, imperative ; the fourth, 
declarative ; the fifth, exclamatory declarative ; and the 
sixth, exclamatory imperative. 

Say as little as practicable about exclamatory sentences 
until your class is well grounded in grammar. 



SECTION II — THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE 

Spend much time in dividing simple, easy sentences into 
subject and predicate. Good sentences for this purpose 
must be found or made. Ordinary paragraphs will not 
answer the purpose at this stage of the pupil's advance- 
ment. Establish in the pupils the habit of beginning the 
grammatical study of every sentence by seeking first the 
predicate, then the subject, and last the modifiers, con- 
nectives, and independent elements. 

In the earlier study, the simple subject and simple predi- 
cate, not the modified, should be named. 



SECTION IV — THE PRONOUN 

Pupils should learn the list of pronouns so that they will 
be as familiar as A, B, C. 

See if any of your pupils can discover a reason for the 
arrangement of the pronouns in II. 

The pronouns given are only one kind of pronouns, but 
your pupils need not be told that at this time. 



40 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

SECTION V — THE VERB 

Definitions are of little use in giving pupils the idea of 
the verb. The verb is the predicate-making word ; it is the 
doing word, the telling word, the asking word, the command- 
ing word. Have pupils learn the list of words that are 
always verbs or parts of verb-phrases. 

Illustrate the exceptions ; as, the month of May^ a strong 
will^ a tin can^ the must in vinegar, the 7night of a strong 
man. These exceptions should not prevent the pupil from 
relying on the general statement that all the words in the 
list are usually verbs and most of them always verbs. 

Spend some weeks in having the pupils find in their 
reading books nouns, these verbs, and the pronouns they 
have learned, until the eye becomes quick to see them. 
Take time for such work. It will prevent many nonsensical 
mistakes later. Do not go on to Section VI until this has 
been thoroughly done. 

Of course, during this practice, work in the other chapters 
of the book will occupy the major portion of the recitation 
period. 

SECTION VI — MODIFIERS 

In the exercise do not have pupils attempt to separate 
the phrases into parts ; treat them as wholes. In the sixth 
sentence, on the top of Mt. Washington modifies blows. 

Call the attention of the pupils to the fact, illustrated in 
the tenth and fourteenth sentences, that a modifier of the 
predicate may stand before the subject. 

SECTION VII — THE ADJECTIVE 

On the first study of this section omit all about descriptive 
adjectives, articles, and numeral adjectives. Go from the 
definition of the adjective to the treatment on the next page 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 41 

of predicate adjectives ; then take the exercise. A month or 
two later, when this section is reviewed, have pupils study 
the entire section. 

In the exercise find first the nouns and then the adjectives 
which modify them. 

SECTION VIII — THE ADVERB 

In an exercise like this you will secure better results by 
telling your pupils in advance just what they are expected 
to accomplish ; thus, when assigning the lesson say to the 
class. Copy these sentences, underlining each adverb. You 
will find at least two adverbs in each sentence ; in the seventh 
and eleventh there are three. 



SECTION IX — THE CLAUSE 

The term clause is here used as equivalent to what is 
called by some grammarians member of a sentence. It has, 
of course, other meanings than that to which it is here 
restricted. In this book, however, it is used only in the 
sense defined. 

Do not drill upon clauses until your pupils are ready to 
take Sections LV-LIX. 



SECTION X — THE PHRASE 

In the exercise, the phrases in the first stanza are with 
kisses, about me, of the Bishop, of Bi^igen, in his Mouse- Tower, 
Oft the Rhine. Let the rest of the exercise, and also the 
exercise on page 179, be written in the same way. 

Review work may be given by asking the pupils to find 
the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs in each sentence 
in this exercise. 



42 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

SECTION XI — THE PREPOSITION 

It will be profitable to give your pupils considerable 
practice in finding prepositions : thus, say to pupils, In the 
exercise on page 179 there are twenty prepositions ; make 
a list of them in the order in which they appear. In the 
exercise on page 177 there are fourteen. 

Give pupils paragraphs in their readers from which to 
select the prepositions. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS I-XIII 

Name the parts of speech. What is a sentence ? What 
are the kinds of sentences ? Define them. What are the 
parts of sentences ? Define them. 

What parts of speech may be the subjects of sentences ? 
What part of speech may be the predicate of a sentence ? 
Which parts of speech are modifiers ? Which parts of speech 
may have modifiers ? Which parts of speech do not have 
modifiers ? Which parts of speech are connective words? 

What is the difference between a noun and a pronoun ? 
an adjective and an adverb ? a preposition and a conjunc- 
tion ? a phrase and a clause .'' 

Which part of speech is used as a substitute for another 
part ? What part of speech modifies a noun ? a pronoun .? 
an adjective ? a verb ? an adverb ? What is an antecedent ? 
What is a verb phrase ? an adjective phrase ? an adverbial 
phrase ? What part of speech is always used as the connect- 
ing word of an adjective or adverbial phrase ? Name the 
words that are always pronouns ; those that are always verbs. 

On the final study of these sections, add the following : 

What kinds of adjectives are there ? How many articles 
are there ? To which part of speech do they belong ? Is 
an adjective modifying a pronoun always a predicate adjec- 
tive ? Is a clause ever found in a simple sentence ? 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 43 

What two parts of speech compose an adjective phrase ? 
an adverbial phrase ? What parts of speech have case ? A 
noun or pronoun in a phrase is in what case ? Can you 
write a phrase that has in it a noun in the objective case 
and a noun in the possessive case ? Can you write a phrase 
that has in it a noun in the nominative case ? A clause of 
two words is composed of what parts of speech ? A clause 
of three words is composed of what parts of speech? 

SECTION XIV — COMPLEMENTS 

This subject of complements is difficult and will require 
time for its comprehension. 

When the lesson is assigned, the teacher should read it and 
discuss it with the class as far as the bottom of page 183 ; 
then the class may study it, and the discussion be renewed 
and, if need be, repeated the next day. Two days may 
be spent upon the exercises. The subject should now be 
dropped for a week and then studied again. Make clear to 
the class that there are three kinds of complements. 

SECTION XV — ANALYSIS 

Oral analysis should precede written. Take Section XV 
and the exercises in Section XVI in oral form; then go back 
and use the written form for the exercises in both sections. 
It is not intended that analysis should be dropped when 
these two sections have been studied, but that sentences 
should be assigned for analysis from all the suitable exer- 
cises which follow and from other sources. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XIV-XVI 

What is a complement ? What is a compliment ? With 
what part of speech is a complement used ? In what part of 
the sentence is it usually found ? What parts of speech may 



44 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

be a complement ? Give an example of each. What is a 
complete verb ? an incomplete ? What are the elements of a 
sentence ? What is analysis ? What is parsing ? In what 
order are you to look for the elements of a sentence in analy- 
sis ? Name the kinds of elements there may be in a sentence. 

On the final study of these sections add these questions : 

What is the distinction between a part of speech and an 
element of a sentence ? 

In the sentence, Naming the elements of a sentence and 
stating their relation to each other is called analysis^ how 
many parts of speech ? how many words ? how many ele- 
ments ? Is every element a part of speech t Is every part 
of speech an element ? Every preposition is a part of 
what kind of an element? What are the principal elements 
of a sentence ? the modifying elements ? the connecting 
elements ? the independent elements ? 

What part of speech may be the subject of a sentence ? 
the predicate ? the complement ? the modifiers ? the connec- 
tive ? When is a noun complement in the nominative case ? 
in the objective case ? What kind of verbs are followed 
by complements ? What kind of incomplete verbs have 
their complements in the nominative case ? in the objective 
case? 

SECTION XVIII — THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB: 

HOW DISTINGUISHED 

Omit this section until the last term of study of this book. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XVII-XVIII 

What is an adjective ? an adverb ? In what ways are 
they alike ? in what ways do they differ ? What are the 
degrees of comparison? How is the comparative degree 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 45 

formed from the positive ? the superlative ? What does the 
suffix ish denote when joined to an adjective ? 

What words are sometimes used to aid in forming the 
comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives? In 
such use, what part of speech are they ? What part of 
speech are very^ rather^ more^ leasts somewhat^ when placed 
before adjectives? 

What is the distinction between bad and illl much and 
many ? farther and further ? little and few ? nearest and 
next? latest and last? older and elder? tiighest and next? 
foremost and first ? 

How do you distinguish between an adjective complement 
and an adverbial modifier ? What kinds of adjectives can 
you name ? Adjectives that can be compared are of what 
kind ? Can numeral adjectives be compared ? Can adjec- 
tives denoting an unchangeable quality be compared ? 

SECTION XX — NUMBER 
Omit IV-XII until near the end of the course. 

SECTION XXI — THE NOUN: ABSTRACT, VERBAL, AND 

COLLECTIVE 

Omit this section until near the end of the course. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XIX-XXII 

What are the two kinds of nouns? What is the distinction 
between them ? Name some kinds of common nouns and 
give examples. Do the kinds you have named include all 
common nouns ? 

What is number ? Give two general rules for the forma- 
tion of the plural of nouns. Do all nouns admit of the 
plural number? Name some nouns used in the singular 



46 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

only; some used in the plural only; some plural in form 
and singular in meaning. 

Give a rule for the formation of the plural of nouns 
ending in y. How do proper nouns form their plurals ? 
compound nouns ? letters and figures ? 

What is gender ? Name the genders. Name the pro- 
nouns of the masculine gender ; the feminine ; the neuter. 
In what ways is the gender of nouns indicated ? Name ten 
masculine nouns and the corresponding feminine nouns. 
Why are the nouns in the following sentences neuter? My 
name is John. I drew a girl in my book. 

SECTION XXIV — CASE: THE NOMINATIVE 

Turn back to the exercise in Section II, page i66, and find 
the nouns and pronouns in the nominative case ; find them 
in the exercises on pages 172, 179, 185, 186, 188, 189, and 
190, and then in the exercise in this section. Take pains 
with this work, discussing all troublesome words carefully. 

The statement, A noun or pronoun whose case depends on 
no other word is in the nominative case, seems like a contra- 
diction. Grammarians speak of nouns really in no case, that 
is, in no relation to other words, as in the nominative case, 
from analogy to Latin grammar, on which a good deal of 
English grammar is based as to terminology. 

Part II of the exercise is designed to call attention to a 
troublesome construction and show pupils some of the verbs 
that take a predicate nominative. Have pupils point out 
the examples in Part I of the same construction. 

SECTION XXV — CASE: APPOSITION 

When or or as unites a noun in apposition to the noun it 
modifies, it is a conjunction and should be parsed as such. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 47 

SECTION XXVI — CASE: THE POSSESSIVE 

There is a possessive case in each sentence in the exer- 
cise. In one sentence there are two. Have pupils find them 
before attempting the analysis. Which sentence shows that 
one possessive case may depend upon another ? Have 
pupils name the case and construction of all the nouns in 
the exercise. 

SECTION XXIX — ADVERBIAL USE OF NOUNS 

Omit until near the end of the course. 

SECTION XXX — MODIFYING COMPLEMENTS 
Omit until near the end of the course. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XXIII-XXX 

What is a verb ? a transitive verb ? an intransitive verb ? 
a complete verb ? an incomplete verb ? What complement 
do transitive verbs take ? Are all transitive verbs incom- 
plete .'' Are intransitive verbs complete or incomplete? 
Give an example of a complete intransitive verb. Of an 
incomplete intransitive verb. 

What is case ? In what case is the subject of a verb ? 
the complement of an intransitive verb ? of a transitive 
verb ? Name five constructions of a noun or pronoun in 
the nominative case. 

Table of the Nominative Case 

1. Subject of a verb. 

2. Complement of an incomplete verb. 

3. Used in an address. 



48 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

4. Used in an exclamation. 

5. Used in a title or signature. 

6. Used independently with a participle (Section LXI). 
Give an example of each use (except 6). 

In what case is a noun in apposition ? What case has a 
special form ? What is this form ? When is a noun in the 
objective case ? 

Explain the several constructions of the objective case 
shown in the following : 

Table of the Objective Case 

I. With a preposition. 
. 2. With a verb. 

a. Direct object. 

b. Indirect object. 

c. Adverbial object. 

d. Modifying complement. 

To what kind of phrase is an indirect object equivalent ? 
What is the distinction between a direct object and an 
indirect ? a direct object and an adverbial ? What beside 
a noun or pronoun may be a modifying complement ? 

They made him captain. 
They made him tell his name. 
They made him very unhappy. 
They made him an apology. 

In the four sentences above, there are five direct objects, 
one indirect, one modifying complement which is a noun, 
one which is an adjective, and one which is an infinitive. 
Find these. 

Write one sentence containing a noun used as a direct 
object, indirect object, and adverbial object. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 49 

SECTION XXXIII — THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 

The construction of the relative what is a difficult one. 
In the sentence, " The path of duty lies in what is near," 
the antecedent part of what is a pronoun, objective case, 
and object of the preposition in; the relative part is a 
pronoun, nominative case, and subject of the verb is. 

Instead of saying antecedent part and relative part, the 
pupil may be taught to say what is equivalent to that which ; 
that is a pronoun, objective case, object of the preposition 
in ; which is a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent 
that, nominative case, subject of the verb is. After pupils 
have completed the exercise as directed, have them parse 
the relative pronouns in the exercise. 

SECTION XXXIV— THE INDEFINITE RELATIVE PRONOUN 

Omit until near the close of the course. 

SECTION XXXVI — THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN 
Omit until near the close of the course. 

SECTION XXXVII — DECLENSION 

The distinction between my and mine, her and hers, etc., 
is that the first form has an adjective use, and the second 
a substantive, or noun, use. Mi?ie, ours, thine, yours, hers, 
and theirs may be called possessive pronouns, and are used 
in the nominative and objective cases. His is used both 
adjectively, as a pronoun in the possessive case, and sub- 
stantively, as a possessive pronoun in the nominative or 
objective case. Parse these -words as they appear in the 
exercise in this section. 



50 



TEACHERS^ MANUAL 



REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XXXI-XXXVIII 

What is a pronoun ? the antecedent of a pronoun ? 
a personal pronoun ? How many personal pronouns are 
there ? Make a list of those which are of the first person ; 
the second ; the third. Name the compound personal pro- 
nouns. How are they formed? In what cases are they 
used ? What is a relative pronoun ? Make a list of them. 
What is an indefinite relative pronoun } Make a list of 
them. What is an interrogative pronoun ? Name them. 
What is an interrogative adjective ? Name the interroga- 
tive adjectives. Where is the antecedent of an interroga- 
tive pronoun to be found ? of a relative pronoun .'' of a 
personal pronoun .'* 

What pronouns contain in themselves their antecedents ? 
What is an adjective pronoun .'* What is the distinction 
between an adjective pronoun and a pronominal adjective? 
What is declension ? comparison ? conjugation ? Decline /, 
you J Ae, she^ it^ who, which. 

SECTION XXXIX — VOICE 

The exercises in the several sections may be used not only 
as directed, but also as exercises in analysis and parsing. 
By so using them the knowledge of the class will become 
clearer and more available. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XXXIX-XLI 

What is voice ? What voice does an intransitive verb 
have ? a transitive ? What is mode ? What modes do verbs 
have ? What is tense ? Name the tenses. Define each 
tense. Name the tenses in each mode. What is an auxiliary 
verb ? a principal verb ? What is a simple verb ? a verb 
phrase ? a compound tense ? What is the subject of a verb ? 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 51 

In what respects does a verb agree with its subject ? What 
is an infinitive ? a participle ? 

SECTION XLIII — NUMBER OF VERBS 

This section should be omitted until near the end of the 
course. 

SECTION XLIV — THE INFINITIVE AND THE PARTICIPLE 

The purpose of this section is to introduce the infini- 
tive and the participle so that their simpler uses may be 
recognized. Do not spend much time now with this les- 
son, nor attempt to teach more about these forms than is 
here given. 

SECTION XLV — REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 

Teachers who do not wish to introduce the term root can 
avoid it by saying present iiifinitive instead. It will not be 
well to spend time learning the principal parts of all the 
irregular verbs. That knowledge is better gained incidentally 
by asking for these parts when irregular verbs are parsed. 
Children learn these forms mostly by talking and listening. 
Those which they do not learn in this way can be taught by 
the teacher. 

SECTION XLVII - CONJUGATION : THE AUXILIARIES 

The conjugation of the auxiliaries at the outset of the 
study of conjugation simplifies very much the pupil's task. 
It is essential that the order of the book should be followed 
here. If the pupil is puzzled by calling shall and will 
present tense, should and would past tense, explain to him 
that this has reference to their form and meaning when used 
alone ; but that used as auxiliaries shall and will are used in 
future tenses, should and would in past potential phrases. 



52 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

When the forms of conjugation become familiar, accustom 
the pupil to use, so far as can readily be done, other subjects 
than the personal pronouns. 

SECTIONS XLVII-XLIX — CONJUGATION 

The pupil should be led to notice how the conjugation of 
a verb is built up. 

The verb has no variation for person and number except 
in the indicative mode, and there only in the forms with thou 
{est forms, sometimes contracted to st or / ; ask the pupil to 
find examples of these contractions and to show what omis- 
sions have brought the word to the form of it now used) and 
the third person singular of the present tense, an s form 
(sometimes et/i). 

The present tense is from the first root of the verb, and 
the past from the second. 

The future tense is made by adding the first root to the 
present tense of shall and will. The remaining tenses are 
formed by adding the third root to the present, past, and 
future of have. This is true of have itself as well as of all 
other verbs. 

SECTION XLVIII — CONJUGATION : THE VERB HAVE 

The pupil should realize that have is here conjugated as a 
principal verb ; as, / have an apple ; and that have as an 
auxiliary has the same forms, not the same tenses, as have 
as a principal verb. 

SECTIONS XLIX-L — CONJUGATION: THE VERBS IV/?/rf 

AND BE 

The pupil should write the conjugation of write and be as 
the conjugation of have is written. 

Omit for the present Sections LI, LII, Lltl, and LIV. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 53 

REVIEW QUESTIONS— SECTIONS XLV-LIV 

What two kinds of verbs are there as to form ? as to use 
with complements ? as to use with objects ? as to number 
of forms ? Define these eight kinds of verbs. 

What is conjugation ? What are auxiliary verbs ? prin- 
cipal verbs ? What are the principal parts of verbs ? Name 
the auxiliary verbs. Of these auxiliaries, shall^ will, and have 
are used in regular forms ; may, can, and must in potential 
forms ; do in emphatic, interrogative, and negative forms ; 
be in progressive and passive forms. 

Name the simple tenses in each mode; the compound 
tenses. In which modes is do used .'' in which tenses ? In 
which tenses of the indicative mode is have used as an 
auxiliary ? What rules can you give for the use of shall 
and will? 

SECTION LV — CLAUSES AND CONNECTIVES 

Study the first page of this section and then omit for the 
present the remainder. 

SECTIONS LVI-LIX — THE SENTENCE: THE CLAUSE 

Study these sections carefully and then review, beginning 
with Section XIV, Complements. In the review take the 
sections and parts of sections omitted in the advance. 
Then take Sections LX and LXI. Sections LXII and 
LXIII are for reference. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS LV-LIX 

What is a phrase ? a clause ? a member of a sentence ? 
an element of a sentence ? a part of speech 1 What two 
kinds of elements are there as to use ? When are elements 
coordinate ? What is a principal element ? a subordinate ? 
What three kinds of subordinate clauses ? What two kinds 



54 . TEACHERS' MANUAL 

of subordinate phrases? What are coordinate connectives? 
subordinate connectives? Name the kinds of subordinate 
connectives. What are correlatives ? What is a sentence ? 
What kinds of sentences are there as to use ? as to form ? 
What kind of connectives unite the clauses of compound 
sentences ? complex ? What is an adjective clause ? What 
is the usual connective of an adjective clause ? What is an 
adverbial clause ? Give an adjective clause in which the 
connective is a conjunctive adverb. Give an adverbial 
clause in which the connective is a conjunctive adverb. 
What is a noun clause ? What constructions may a noun 
clause have ? Give an example of each. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS— SECTIONS LX-LXI 

What is an infinitive ? a participle ? What modifiers 
may they have ? what complements ? 

What tenses does an infinitive have ? a participle ? Do 
infinitives and participles have voice ? 

Give the infinitive forms, active and passive, of five irregu- 
lar verbs ; of two regular verbs. Give the participles of 
five irregular verbs ; of two regular verbs. The infinitive 
is generally used as a noun. Give a sentence in which the 
infinitive is a subject; a nominative complement; an objec- 
tive complement ; a modifying complement ; in apposition 
with a noun ; the object of a preposition. 

After what verbs is to^ the sign of the infinitive, usually 
omitted ? What is the usual construction of the infinitive 
after these verbs ? 

What are independent elements ? What part of speech 
is always independent ? What parts of speech are some- 
times independent ? What parts of speech are never inde- 
pendent ? Name the eight forms of independent elements. 
Which of them have you studied before ? In what case is 
a noun or pronoun when used independently ? 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 55 

CHAPTER XI — PUNCTUATION 

There should be much practice in punctuation in connec- 
tion with the study of this chapter. 

A duplicating press is a great convenience in preparing 
exercises in punctuation for pupils. Such exercises may 
also be given as dictation exercises, or may be written upon 
the blackboards without capitals and marks of punctuation. 
As another plan, let pupils copy, without capitals or marks 
of punctuation, the exercises in punctuation in this book, 
and hand them to you at the recitation period. 

At a subsequent lesson give these exercises to the class 
for completion. Pupils may copy without capitals and 
marks of punctuation certain paragraphs from their school 
books, each pupil having a different paragraph to copy. 
The paragraphs may be exchanged in class for completion. 
If the incomplete paragraphs are not marked or written 
upon, they may be used many times over. Take care to 
select paragraphs not containing punctuation in advance of 
the study of the pupils, and do not allow certain marks to 
be used without explanation. Refer to the directions in 
Section XXVII as occasions for their use arise. 

Begin the treatment of punctuation by reviewing Chap- 
ter I of this book in the following manner: Have your 
pupils observe the use of capitals in the chapter. What 
rules for the use of capitals can they make ? What rules 
for the use of the period ? interrogation point .'' exclama- 
tion point.'' 

Have them now study Section VI, Terminal Marks, in 
the chapter on punctuation. What illustrations of these 
rules are found in the first chapter ? What uses of the 
dash are found in this chapter ? 

(a) When as introduces an example it is followed by a colon 
and a dash, if it comes at the end of a line. (See p. 240.) 



56 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

(b) When a quotation is followed by the name of its 
author a dash is placed before the name, if it is printed 
continuously with the quotation. 

If Shakespeare^ Exercise I, example i, page 4, had been 
printed at the right of the line on which it stands, no dash 
would have been used. (See examples on pp. 60 and 61.) 

Ask pupils what use of colon and dash ( : — ) is found 
in Chapter I ? What use of semicolon with as ( ; as) ? 
What other words introducing examples or illustrations are 
punctuated like as ? 

Give the rules for all capitals and marks of punctuation, 
except commas and some semicolons, in Chapter I. 

Study Section I, Chapter XI. Find many illustrations, 
in this book and elsewhere, of the use of capitals. 

Note. — Capitals are used less than formerly, and sometimes 
their use is a mere matter of taste. A geographical common 
noun, like river, island, mountain, lake, street, county, is not to 
be capitalized unless it is an essential part of a name. We 
usually write Lake Michigan, but Michigan lake. 

A title of honor or office is capitalized only when joined with 
a proper name. However, as an exception, capitalize the title 
of the chief ruler of a state or nation. Write, Colonel Atwater is 
president of the company ; George Washington was first Presi- 
dent of the United States ; James Brown, Esq., is pleased to 
have esquire written after his name ; the state vs. the city of 
Lynn. 

Have pupils study Sections II and III, and note that 
titles used with names are usually abbreviated, and that 
titles following a name are separated from the name and 
from each other by commas. Many illustrations of Sec- 
tion III may be found in Chapter II. 

Have pupils learn the following abbreviations : Mr., 
Messrs., Mrs., Mmes., Jr., Sr., Esq., Hon., Fr. (only before 
the name of a divine), Rev., Rt. Hon., Bro., Prof., Supt., 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 57 

Capt., Col., Gen., Lieut., 2d Lieut., Gov., Atty. ; the days of 
the week, the months of the year, the states of the Union. 

SECTION IV— THE USE OF THE APOSTROPHE 

Note the two uses of the apostrophe. Find examples of 
each. 

At before the name of a firm requires the use of the 
possessive case ; as, at Jordan and Marsh's. 

SECTION V— THE USE OF THE HYPHEN 

Note the two uses of the hyphen. A sufficient number 
of examples of the first use will be found in the pupil's 
own writing. Teach this use with care. The second use 
requires scholarship. For young persons there is nothing 
better than to rely on the dictionary. 

SECTION VI — TERMINAL MARKS 

Have pupils find numerous examples of each rule for the 
use of the period. Rule 4 is an important one and should 
be studied with the explanations under it until it is thor- 
oughly understood and examples of its application are 
readily found. 

SECTION VII — THE COMMA IN A SERIES 

Many writers do not use the comma before the conjunc- 
tion preceding the last term of a series. Usually news- 
papers do not insert a comma at this place ; but books 
and the higher-class magazines do. 

Have the pupils find all the illustrations of the use of the 
comma in a series in the seven rules of Section VI. 

The comma after polite in the sixth example, page 294, 
follows the rule in Section X. The other commas in this 



58 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

example follow both Section VII and Section X, the sev- 
eral pairs of words being considered the parts of a series. 

SECTION VIII — THE COMMA WITH WORDS OF ADDRESS 

It will be easy to find examples of this use of the comma. 
Exercise II directs the pupil to explain the punctuation in 
certain examples. This explanation and all similar explana- 
tions should include, not only the marks used in illustra- 
tions of the rule, but also all the capitals and marks of 
punctuation to be found in the examples. 

SECTION IX — THE COMMA SHOWING THE OMISSION OF 

WORDS 

Note that the day of the month is not separated from the 
name of the month. 

The rule in this section, as has been before noticed, 
applies also to titles following names. To what commas 
in the forms for letters does the rule in Section VIII apply.? 
to what the rule in Section IX ? Find illustrations of these 
rules in Chapter II. 

Notice the use of the semicolon in this section. When 
the divisions of a sentence cgntain commas, these divisions 
are separated by semicolons. 

SECTION X — THE COMMA WITH WORDS IN PAIRS, 
AND AFTER YES AND /\fO 

Have your pupils copy the following paragraph and 
explain the use of the first six commas. The others they 
will learn about later. 

Light and darkness, heat and cold, hunger and food, 
sweet and sour, solid, liquid, and gas, circle round in a 
wreath of pleasures, and, by their agreeable quarrel, beguile 
the day of life. — Emerson. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 59 

SECTION XI — DOUBLE QUOTATION MARKS 

Pupils may study Section XI as far as the exercise ; then 
copy the first four examples at the top of page 298, and the 
first, third, sixth, seventh, and eighth examples, page 299. 
Ask them to give the rules for the capitals, periods, inter- 
rogation points, quotation marks, and commas in the exer- 
cises they have written. For the second comma in the 
second sentence see Section XVIII ; for that after to-day^ 
eighth sentence, see Section XVII. 

Have them change the sentences in Exercise I, and then 
take Exercises II and III. They should be asked to insert 
only such marks of punctuation as they understand the 
use of. 

SECTION XII — SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS 

When pupils have studied Section XII as far as Exer- 
cise II, ask them to explain all the capitals and marks of 
punctuation in the sentences which they have just studied, 
except the comma after liberty in the second example. 
(See Section XVII.) They may then take Exercise II, as 
directed. 

Note, on the use of quotation marks, that they may 
sometimes be omitted ; for example : 

When his tempters demanded that Jesus should show them a 
sign from heaven, " He answered and said unto them. When it 
is evening, ye say, It will be fair weather : for the sky is red. 
And in the morning, It will be foul weather to-day : for the sky is 
red and lowering." 

To put quotation marks around the inner quotations 
above would be cumbersome and distinctly confusing. 
The change from the words of one speaker to another is 
sufficiently indicated by the use of the capital letters. 



6o TEACHERS' MANUAL 



SECTION XIII — THE COMMA WITH NOUNS IN APPOSITION 

If your class has studied apposition in grammar they may 
now take Section XIII ; otherwise, take Section XIV. 



SECTION XIV — THE COMMA WITH PARENTHETICAL 

EXPRESSIONS 

The rule in this section has many applications requiring 
good judgment. It cannot be expected that pupils will use 
it infallibly at first. After studying the section it will be 
well for the teacher to give the class training in hunting 
for illustrations of the application of this rule. Ask each 
member of the class to select from a certain reading les- 
son as many illustrations of this rule as he can find ; at 
another time to see how many illustrations he can find in 
his geography or history. 

SECTION XVI — THE COMMA WITH WORDS IN THE 

SAME CONSTRUCTION 

Words and terms in apposition, words in pairs, and words 
in series are particular instances of " words in the same 
construction." 

SECTION XVII — THE COMMA IN COMPOUND ELEMENTS 

An effort has been made to bring those rules of punctua- 
tion for whose application no knowledge of grammar is 
required, as early as possible, consistent with the plan to 
treat each mark of punctuation by itself. 

From this section on, some knowledge of grammar will 
usually be a prerequisite to the ready application of the 
rules of punctuation. But this knowledge existing, the 
application of the rules which follow is often easier than 
of some which precede. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 6l 

SECTION XVIII — THE COMMA WITH ADJECTIVE 

ELEMENTS 

This is one of the most difficult rules of punctuation, and 
it is very important that it should be well understood. 

Many examples of explanatory and restrictive adjective 
elements should be selected, and the difference between 
them gradually and fully pointed out. 

In addition to the exercise in this section, examples of 
restrictive adjective clauses may be found in Section LVII 
of the chapter on grammar. 

SECTION XIX — THE COMMA WITH ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS 

This rule is most often applicable to the adverbial ele- 
ment at the beginning of a sentence. Examples of this use 
of the comma are readily found and easily comprehended. 
Rules in Sections XVII and XIX will cover the punctua- 
tion of clauses of complex sentences. 

SECTION XX — THE COMMA AFTER THE SUBJECT 

The comma should not be used under this rule unless it 
separates two verbs, one of which belongs in the subject, 
or is needed to show where the subject ends and the predi- 
cate begins. 

SECTION XXI— THE COMMA WITH INDEPENDENT 

ELEMENTS 

This section has already been studied in part. At this 
time, further study should be made only as far as the gram- 
matical constructions involved are understood by the pupils. 

It will be best at this point to interrupt the detailed study 
of punctuation by sections, and to devote some months to 
a study of punctuation as shown in well-punctuated texts. 



62 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

Begin, for example, with Chapter II, page 6, and ask the 
pupils to notice each capital and mark of punctuation on 
the page, both in the text and exercises, and tell, or refer to, 
the statement in the chapter on punctuation that applies to 
the case. Explanations should be given, not only of the 
comma, the chief mark of punctuation thus far studied, but 
also of all the marks of punctuation which are already 
partially understood and can hereafter be best studied by 
noting and explaining them as they are found in the text 
examined. 

This exercise and the punctuation of dictated sentences 
and paragraphs should be continued a few minutes daily 
for a long time. Pages of the history or geography may 
be used in the same way, and preferably, for the sake of 
variety. 

SECTION XXII — THE SEMICOLON 

The semicolon has been studied somewhat already. The 
entire section should now be taken. The examination work 
in geography, history, and physiology will probably provide 
many illustrations of the use of the semicolon. 

SECTION XXIII— THE COLON 

Several uses of the colon have already been observed. 
It is a mark of punctuation that will not be often used by 
school children. Its use can best be taught by calling atten- 
tion to it when it is found, and explaining why it is used in 
the particular instance observed. 

We observed under the semicolon that divisions of sen- 
tences containing commas should be separated by semi- 
colons. This rule might be enlarged so as to read. Divisions 
of sentences containing semicolons may be separated by 
colons. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 63 

SECTION XXIV — PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS 

As the difference between the use of parentheses and of 
commas to inclose parenthetical expressions is simply one 
of degree, so the use of the brackets indicates a greater 
separation from the context of the words inclosed than 
would be shown by the use of the parentheses. 

SECTION XXV— THE DASH 

No special directions for the study of the dash are 
required. The contrast expressed sometimes by the use 
of the dash is stronger than that shown in similar instances 
by the comma. 

SECTION XXVI — AN EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION 

Much study of miscellaneous exercises in punctuation is 
required to give readiness and confidence to pupils. 

The exercise in correct form is repeated in the miscella- 
neous exercises for the convenience of the teacher who may 
wish to direct a pupil to copy it upon the blackboard. 

SECTION XXVII — MARKS OF CORRECTION 

It is supposed that most of the directions here given 
have been already learned as the need of them has been 
felt. They are here gathered for convenience. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION 

The Mississippi Pilot 

A passenger said to a pilot on a Mississippi steamer, 
'' How long have you been a pilot on these waters ? " 

The old man answered, "Twenty-five years, and I came 
up and down many times before I was pilot," 



64 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

"Then," said the passenger, "you must know every rock 
and sand bar on the river." 

The pilot smiled at the man's simplicity and replied, 
" Oh, no, I don't; but I know where the deep water is." 

That is what we want, to know the safe path and keep it. 

Took a Country 

A British soldier was recently conducting a party from 
the United States through the citadel at Quebec. One of 
the party, a small maid of nine, was an earnest patriot. 
"Here," said the soldier triumphantly, "here are two guns 
we took from your people at Bunker Hill." For a moment 
the child was silent, then replied, " Come home with me, 
and I '11 show you a whole country we took from your people 
about the same time." 

Cross-Questioning 

Frederick the Great prided himself upon his personal 
interest in every one of his soldiers. No matter how large 
his forces, he knew a strange face as soon as it appeared 
in the lines. 

Of the new soldiers, as they came to his notice, he always 
asked three questions, " How old are you .'' " " How long 
have you been here ? " " Have you received your pay and 
your uniform ? " 

These questions he always asked in the same order. 
Therefore, one day when a Frenchman entered the ranks, 
his comrades attempted to prepare him to meet the king. 

The Frenchman, not knowing one word of German, was 
taught the answers to these questions. 

In due time, the volunteer appeared before the King. 
Frederick spied the newcomer at once and called him out. 
Alas for the Frenchman and the three German answers 
which he had learned ! 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 65 

By some unhappy fortune the King forgot his usual order 
and began with, " How long have you been in the army ? " 
" Twenty-one years, sir," answered the Frenchman glibly 
" How old are you ? " 
" Three days." 

Frederick looked puzzled. Was the man trying to insult 
him ? 

" Are you a fool ? " thundered the King, " or am I ? " 
" Both, sir," answered the Frenchman politely. 
Frederick was furious. The poor man was seized by the 
bodyguard and no one knows what might have happened 
had not a comrade of the unfortunate man rushed forward 
and explained the trouble. 

Shakespeare was born in 1564; died in 1616. Yesterday 
is past ; to-morrow is to be. Keep your temper ; you may 
be sure no one else wants it. 

Wheat is raised abundantly in the following states : Ohio, 
which is on Lake Erie ; Indiana and Illinois, which border 
on Lake Michigan. 

There are seven days in a week ; Sunday, Monday, etc. 

The United States has been engaged in five wars; the 
Revolution, the War of 18 12, the Mexican War, the Civil 
War, and the Spanish War. 

The Indian wars accomplished four great results : they 
united the colonies ; they trained thousands of men in the 
use of firearms, and thus, in a measure, prepared them for 
the War of Independence ; they made the colonists feel less 
need of English protection ; they cleared the ground east of 
the Mississippi. 

There are extensive coal beds in five countries of Europe ; 
Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, and Belgium. 



66 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

There were at that time two political parties in the United 
States : the Federalists, who had adopted the Constitution ; 
and the Anti- Federalists, who had voted against it. 

In peace and war, at home and abroad, there is but one 
humane and safe rule : Hesitate to strike ; strike hard. 

Then amidst the ringing of bells and firing of cannon, a 
great shout went up : " Long live George Washington, the 
President of the United States." 

" Go back ! go back ! " his soldiers cried, as he exposed 
himself incautiously. " We will do our duty." 

Everything grows old ; everything passes away ; every- 
thing disappears. 

That continent commands the Atlantic only ; this com- 
mands two oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific. 

A second conquest of ancient Peru has begun, a con- 
quest of steel ; but it is the steel of rails, and not of swords. 

. A man said to his slave, " I am your master no longer ; 
I make you free." 

" No, master, my work is not oppressive and I fare well, 
and, being -a slave, I feel no degradation." 

" But," said the man, " I feel the degradation of being 
your master; you are free." 

" Have you among all the animals a greater benefactor 
than I am ? " asked the bee of the man. 

" Certainly," he answered, " the sheep ; for its wool is 
necessary for me, whereas your honey is only agreeable." 

Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again ; 

The eternal years of God are hers ; 
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 

And dies among his worshippers. 



TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 6/ 

A Cure for Crying 

The great French writer, Victor Hugo, tells this story 
about his own childhood. His father, be it remembered, 
was one of Napoleon's generals. 

" When I was five or six years old, I was crying one day. 
My father, who heard me, did not reprove me ; ^ but this 
is the way he punished me : 

" ' Why, the poor dear little girl,' he said in a cool, iron- 
ical manner. * What 's the matter with her ? Who has been 
making her cry } She shan't be found fault with. It 's all 
right for little girls to cry. But how 's this .? What have 
you been dressing her in boy's clothes for ? Make her a 
pretty frock at once, and to-morrow she shall go and take 
a walk in the garden of the Tuileries.' 

" Sure enough, the next day the nurse put a girl's dress 
on me, according to order, and took me to walk at the 
Tuileries. I was well mortified, as you may perhaps imag- 
ine. But I never cried again from that day until I had 
become a man grown." 



Abou Ben Adhem 

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase !) 
Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 
And saw, within the moonlight in his room, 
Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 
An angel writing in a book of gold. 
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 

1 Here the semicolon is used instead of the comma because of the 
contrast between what precedes and what follows. If the thought had 
been so expressed as to admit the use of and instead of du^ the comma 
would have been used. 



68 TEACHERS' MANUAL 

And to the presence in the room he said, 
" What writest thou ? " The vision raised its head, 
And, with a look made of all sweet accord, 
Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord." 
"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," 
Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low. 
But cheerly still ; and said, " I pray thee, then. 
Write me as one who loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night 
It came again, with a great wakening light. 
And showed the names whom love of God had blest ; 
And, lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 

James Henry Leigh Hunt. 

[For further exercises in punctuation the teacher is 
referred to Tarbell's Essentials of English Composition.] 



APR 22 1903 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 





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